trailHadronic interaction models reliably predict the air-shower observables used to infer cosmic-ray composition
Pierre Auger Observatory shower-maximum measurements indicate cosmic-ray composition becomes heavier above about 2×10^18 eV
The highest-energy cosmic rays include a substantial proton fraction.
Collider anchoring and cross-model consistency· for
LHC measurements constrain hadronic interaction models used in air-shower simulation up to equivalent energies of about 10^17 eV
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Mass-composition trends inferred from shower-maximum measurements are qualitatively consistent across current hadronic interaction models
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Demonstrated data–model discrepancies· against
Measured air showers contain more muons than simulations with current hadronic interaction models predict
Auger measurements show ground-level muon signals well above hadronic interaction model predictions
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A combined analysis of muon measurements from nine air-shower experiments finds a muon excess over simulations growing with energy above 10 PeV
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Auger hybrid data are best described when hadronic model predictions are shifted to deeper shower maxima and larger ground-level hadronic signals
shared · shown elsewhere
Post-LHC hadronic interaction models differ in predicted mean shower-maximum depth by roughly 20 to 30 g/cm²
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Hadronic interaction models reliably predict the air-shower observables used to infer cosmic-ray composition
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